West Point officers in the Civil War were familiar with the Napoleonic Wars and European military campaigns. Henry Halleck was best known for translating Henri Jomini's work, The Art of War. Their knowledge and background of European history and military science would seem to influence their decision-making early in the war. This education rarely applied to practical experience. It is even more true for those who had the opportunity to visit before the outbreak of the American Civil War. This piece will assess three military officers and how specific aspects of their European experience, such as the use of fortifications, their respect for other cultures, and their unique perspective of Europe influenced their thinking during the Civil War. George McClellan was an observer of the Crimean War, August Kautz traveled Western Europe with other American and British officers in 1858, and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson enjoyed a vacation in 1857.
Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, offered McClellan a place in the Delafield Commission, a significant opportunity for the up-and-coming young officer. Davis wanted American officers to observe the Crimean War in Europe, a conflict of immense interest and importance to the American military. McClellan, a young 28-year-old who had already served ably in the Mexican-American War, was one of the rare few to observe a European conflict alongside Lieutenant Col. Alfred Mordecai. The group departed for Europe in April of 1855 and, with many delays, did not reach the Crimean Front until 8 October 1855, after the Siege of Sevastopol was over. This siege, a key event in the Crimean War, lasted for ten months between the forces of the Russian Empire and the allied forces of the British, French, and Ottoman Empire. Each side suffered severe casualties, with over 400,000 total casualties.
Upon arriving at the scarred battlefield, George McClellan interviewed French and British officers after their victory. McClellan never witnessed as much carnage in the aftermath of Sevastopol as the battles of the Mexican-American War. Despite taking little interest in the development of rifles, he noted the importance of the fortifications. These extensive notes later provided him some experience during the Siege of Yorktown in 1862. Impacted by losing men during the Siege of Sevastopol, he ensured that every movement was methodical and cautious. His casualties in the Siege of Yorktown only amounted to 182 over four weeks. This slow preparation, coupled with extensive caution, enabled the rebels to evacuate the city successfully. However, McClellan's well-published account of his time in Crimea was helpful to another Union general, Ulysses S. Grant. Grant asked his wife, Julia Grant, to search their home for a copy of this publication so he could go over managing large formations in battle.
August Kautz produced no such work as McClellans while journeying through Western Europe. Kautz was born in Ispringer, Baden-Württemberg. He moved to the United States in his youth to Ohio. Kautz served as a private in the Mexican-American War, then attended West Point after the war. He then served admirably against Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest. Right before the start of the Civil War, Kautz returned to Europe in 1859. Kautz first arrived in London and viewed much of the city as if he was an American tourist. In London, Kautz met with Colonel William Loring of the Mounted Rifle Regiment, and they traveled together to Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. It was not a happy trip as Colonel Loring treated Kautz as his inferior and servant. Kautz was glad to escape his presence following their trip. He only met with Colonel Loring once in a group setting, avoiding him altogether.
Kautz learned more about dealing with other officers than how battles functioned. In Paris, he traveled with some other American and British officers. They would often drink well into the night. These escapades disgusted Kautz, but he found himself partaking in these events. In one such case, he snuck away at 3 AM, seeing that the men were not letting up. Kautz was disgusted by the pretentiousness of English-speaking officers. He believed the other officers should use French or German in these countries. Kautz was multilingual. He could speak German, English, and basic French. He tried to learn Italian but failed. The only battlefield that Kautz visited was Solferino. The French and Sardinians fought the Austrian Empire in a sanguine engagement to the West of Venice. Kautz found little evidence that a battle ever took place, only making note of a few bullet holes in some buildings. Kautz's lessons were not the typical military fare of tactics, strategy, training, or fortifications. His unique focus was on navigating relationships with other officers and respecting other cultures and societies. Despite not being promoted to Major General in the regular army and his aloof personality not attracting the attention of high-ranking officers, his appreciation and respect for cultural differences proved invaluable when he was appointed commander of the Department of Arizona following the Civil War.
Stonewall Jackson, often seen as the epitome of the 'rough and tough' American, surprised many with his deep respect for diversity during his European visit. His difficult upbringing, which saw him and his siblings separated due to his mother's financial struggles, did not deter him from finding a place at West Point and participating in the Mexican-American War. His admirable service led to a position at the Virginia Military Institute. In 1856, Jackson embarked on a cultural journey, visiting England, Scotland, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Like Kautz, Jackson's focus was not on battlefields but on the culture of these places. Even on vacation, Jackson remained a 'taskmaster,' spending sixteen hours learning about each place and experiencing personal growth.
Jackson developed a love of art and architecture as he visited churches, public buildings, large cities, and harbors. In some of these places, he took the time to look at artwork and sculptures. He would visit the surrounding areas to inspect the mountains and environment, learning about each country's topography. Jackson spent the most time observing the hills and lakes of Scotland while appreciating the ruins and artwork of Rome. Jackson took detailed notes of his visit and talked graciously about the sermons he heard while in Europe. Only Jackson, between these three men, took the time to listen to other sermons and practice his faith, solidifying the role of religion in Jackson's life. This religious aspect of his European experience likely influenced his thinking and decision-making during the Civil War. Finally, Jackson did visit one battlefield in Europe, Waterloo. Arthur Wellesley and Gebhard von Blucher defeated Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Waterloo. After the battle, Napoleon was forced into exile on St. Helena for the rest of his life. Jackson believed that Napoleon had a better position on the battlefield despite being defeated. When asked why Napoleon was defeated later, Jackson responded, "I can only explain it by telling you that I think God intended him to stop right there."
Jackson held a bias toward Napoleon and needed to spend more time learning why or how Arthur Wellesley managed to repulse each of Napoleon's repeated attacks. Jackson's focus on the culture of these countries indicates that Jackson possessed a complex personality. He was not hard-pressed by superiors to visit battlefields or learn about European tactics or strategy. He individualized his trip by focusing on the cultures of these countries. For Jackson, it indeed was a European vacation. It is difficult to determine what Jackson learned from his trip to Europe, such as from Kautz or McClellan, but his interests remained entrenched in faith, topography, and his love of art.
Of these three men who visited Europe before the outbreak of the Civil War, Jackson, the most successful general of the three during the Civil War, had little care for the battlefields of Europe. He knew of Napoleon based on his education at West Point. The cadets and professors of the military academy praised Napoleon. Therefore, Jackson's interpretation of the battle came from his studies rather than his time at Waterloo. There was also an inherent trait of military genius that the other two men did not possess. When visiting Europe, Kautz learned how to better work with other officers and saw beyond military tactics and history. Finally, the man who spent the most time studying battlefields and doctrine in Europe ended up being relieved from command. George McClellan did not take away the same lessons as Jackson and Kautz. He was brilliant and well-educated but did not possess the same natural abilities as Jackson, who did not need to study other fortifications and battles to be exceptional in the field.
Comments